Key trends among the plethora of early participatory forest management (PFM) developments have been observed. These include increasing empowerment of local communities in forest management, and emergence of these populations as a cadre of forest managers in their own right. It has been noted that this stems in part from local demand, crystallised through participation. It also arrives through recognition by forestry administrations of the heavy and perhaps needless time and investment incurred through sustained operational roles themselves and/or supervising community roles.

Whilst some programmes have begun with power sharing in mind, most have come to this position through learning by doing, and increasingly, some degree of observation as to what works and does not work in neighbouring states. This manner of transition has been quite evident in the changing character of projects in Nigeria, Ethiopia, Malawi, Burkina Faso and Mozambique. It is likely to continue as PFM practice continues to refine. This may well include programmes in Zambia, Ghana and Ivory Coast where committees so far established are more for consultation than sharing decision-making, naming of those efforts as 'joint forest management' notwithstanding.

Indisputably, the flagship of this transition (and PFM overall) is the Community Forest. As already observed, the construct is most developed in Cameroon, The Gambia and Tanzania but the construct exists more widely and with increasingly legal definition. Whilst the overall notion of 'community forests' is fairly consistent around the continent, its development is still curtailed in a range of ways.

First, for example, whilst most communities define the community forest area themselves, in some states, limitations are placed upon its size (Cameroon).

Second, declaration of Community Forests is almost everywhere accompanied by important socio-institutional developments at the community level, in the form of variously constituted bodies, mandated to implement the forest management plan agreed to or devised by community members.
Third, whilst community tenure, albeit of usually a customary and unregistered nature, is implied, formal recognition of this is still rare and/or expressed in ambivalent terms. A main exception is The Gambia where a formal transfer of tenure is integral to finalisation of a Community Forest.
Fourth, in both legal and operational terms, fully autonomous community jurisdiction is rarely attained.

Most Community Forests come into being only with and through the formal agreement of the state and under terms largely set by it --the case even in The Gambia. In countries like Nigeria, Burkina, Faso, Togo, Malawi, Ghana, Benin and Mozambique, recognition of local tenure is conversely overlaid by quite stringent state control over how the forest is actually used. Nonetheless, Community Forests represent a significant departure from twentieth century forest management practice and related classification of forests. Inter alia, they open the way for a widening range of gazetted non-government forest estates.

Extracted from: "Participatory Forest Management in Africa. An Overview of Progress and Issues", by Liz Alden Wily, 25 February 2002, posted on the CBNRM Net's Web Page: http://www.cbnrm.net/pdf/aldenwily_l_002_cfm.pdf

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- Benin: Community-Based Forest Management in the Igbodja Forest

In most of the African countries, claims concerning community-based forest and natural resource management have arisen as a reaction to the repressive nature of natural resource laws inherited from Colonial times. Forestry laws in force in the post-Colonial period compromised local community rights to forest ownership. Licences and other forms of taxes so far unknown to local communities were imposed to control the exploitation of forest products that the local inhabitants had had free access to previously, either for their domestic consumption or for marketing.

With the increase in the population, the demand for arable land also increased. In the Igbodja region, four communities occupied the forest, mainly composed of Tchabê peoples. These welcomed other peoples from the South and the North (the Fon, the Ahoussa and the Peulh), which in turn set up twenty more communities. The struggle for survival then became increasingly difficult. Forest destruction has been aggravated over the past years by the numerous population seeking a means of living, without respecting minimum conservation rules.

To palliate this situation the authorities of ACTION Plus NGO, after obtaining economic support from the IUCN Dutch Committee to carry out a study on this forest, encouraged the inhabitants of the zone to launch activities aimed at implementing community-based forest management.

In order to initiate the population in community-based forest management and management of other natural resources, needs were identified and participation was planned and work was done on awareness building; visits to the stakeholders were made and agreements and protocols established with a view to obtaining the greatest local participation possible in this process. The identification of the real owners of the land was an important step. The local populations are going to carry out surveys to prepare a plan of the zone covered by community-based forest management. In the framework of the study on endogenous flora and fauna, the inhabitants participated in the plantation of 15,000 stands of Senegalese Khaya. The village of Igbodja, bearing the same name as the forest, will make available to the population a community space of 5,000 hectares to initiate true community-based forest management. The other four villages are still at the discussion stage but we believe that each village will have its own space integrated into community management. Additionally, all have their own nurseries.

The breeding of hedgehogs (Thryonomys swinderianus) has started and beekeeping has been introduced in two villages to halt the frequent plant fires in the region.

In order to carry out this project, it is necessary to be able to read the texts of laws. For this purpose, a literacy programme in the local language was set up, involving 60 people per village, with a total of 300, directed by local teachers.

At present, latent conflicts are related with degradation of agricultural biodiversity. Large-scale, non-native roving farmers plant new areas every year, thus destroying more and more forest areas. The native inhabitants complain about the situation and threaten to throw them out. These roving farmers cannot plant trees as they are considered as tenants and tenants are not allowed to plant trees on other people's lands. In the framework of our task, all must have their own roles and nobody should be left out. The contribution of all to community-based forest management is a necessity.

From our work, it has become evident that our legislation on forest matters is inappropriate. We have approached the Forestry and Natural Resource Office officials asking them to prepare suitable laws on this matter, taking into consideration the workshops held in Gambia in 1999. A national workshop is expected to be held with the participation of all the stakeholders, including NGOs. Thus, we will be able to generalise the technique of community management and progress from being merely a pilot project. The population will then fully participate in the sustainable development of forest resources and this gap will be bridged when the mayors take on management of their respective localities as stipulated in the law, interrupting forest degradation. It is a desire that has repeatedly been expressed by the population.

Extracted from Stéphan OGOU's report: "Résumé de l'étude de la biodiversité de la forêt Igbodja", sent by the author, ACTION Plus NGO, e-mail: s.ogou@caramail.com. The full version, in French, is available at http://www.wrm.org.uy/countries/Benin/Igbodja.html

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- Cameroon: Development of Community Forests

Community forests are a new kind of mechanism of progressive local community responsibility for forest and forest resource management. So far, thirty-five community forests have been allocated by the Ministry of the Environment.

The results of management models developed so far have been discrete and limited, and experience is fairly recent. Most of them are still at a learning stage.

On a social and cultural level, the model developed in community-managed forests in the region is one of partnerships. Following some questioning, this model has recently reached a certain degree of stability, with the exception of the Bimboué forest, where it is subject to conflicts that are progressively being solved.

The main advantages of such a model are the following: the functionality of the partnership model, the beginnings of an improvement in the habitat, children's education, learning through action, dissemination of the activity, the capacity to defend their rights, the strengthening of minority communities (the Baka, women, etc.).

However, problems do exist: the communities' model of organisation, in spite of its relevance and functionality in the local sociological context, remains foreign to local social structures which hold attributions and power regarding natural resource management (incompatibility of the present model of partnership with the endogenous form of representation and the social structure, much incomprehension due to the appearance of new structures in the villages as the communities do not recognise themselves in the model developed, non-integration of women in decision-making).

From an economic standpoint, the management models developed had both positive and negative impacts. For example, they facilitated the creation of jobs in the village --with a subsequent reduction in rural exodus-- the payment of debts, the strengthening of a forum, the training of local experts and technicians, the beginning of a process towards improving the habitat, the construction of chapels, health help and care, the building of outpatients clinics, etc.).

However, various problems arose at that level: current financial management of income generated by community forests is not sustainable. It is not based on any scientific management system. Most of the activities undertaken with financial income generated by exploitation of community forests do not respond to income management planning prepared prior to the arrival of funds in the communities.

Most of the actions undertaken so far were not initially foreseen in the simple management plans and are not always aimed at a community objective.

Finally, on a technical and ecological level, two technical approaches to exploitation have been used so far in the community forests: industrial exploitation and artisan exploitation.

Industrial exploitation has been carried out by the Bimboue community (East Cameroon) in collaboration with forestry companies selected by the directors of the association. Through this modality, they were able to exploit the timber potential of the community forest and generate funds for use in community works. However, this means of appreciation of community forest resources suffered many setbacks, mainly due to conflicts of interests and of power regarding the management of income from logging. It has been prohibited by the forestry regulations presently in force.

Artisan exploitation is presently the sole and unique form of exploitation practised in community forests. For example, it is operational in five community forests in Lomié in East Cameroon. Most of these forests are implementing a second contract with the beneficiaries, however in some cases such as that of Ngola, they do not have a formal contract with the partner. The first contracts were not performed for various reasons: non-compliance with deadlines for payments, poor use of the timber logged, ridiculously low prices for the cubic metre of timber, insufficient training of local technicians.

Progress made was: respect for the minimum diameter of exploitation, existence of monitoring commissions, protection of multiple use essences (wild fruit-trees and others), family exploitation of non-timber forest products and of the fauna, the preparation of an inventory covering 100% of the area open up to exploitation, community participation in prospecting, short-term contracts with partners (3 months), training in basic forestry techniques, an isolated case of manual opening up of roads, transportation of timber on men's heads.

The problems are: lack of materialisation of external boundaries; lack of respect for boundaries (related with the method of partner exploitation); weakening of the monitoring commission in some communities; lack of control over exploitation of non-timber forest products; awareness-building does not always achieve the expected effect (risk of not carrying out rotation); prospecting plan not available in the community context; absence of a programme; sacrifice and risk associated to transportation of timber on men's heads (risk of accidents); lack of data on other resources (non-timber forestry resources); lack of a hunting plan for fauna management (fauna exploitation continues on an individual and domestic basis).

However, in spite of the limitations found in the process, real enthusiasm is observed on the part of local communities. This enthusiasm reflects the increasing desire of village communities to participate in forestry resource management and in this way, through forest management, contribute to improving their living conditions.

Extracts from Patrice Bigombe Logo's briefing: "Foresterie Communautaire et Réduction de la Pauvreté Rurale au Cameroun: Bilan et tendances de la première décennie", sent by the author, Research and Action Center for Sustainable Development in Central Africa (Centre de Recherche et d'Action pour le Développement Durable en Afrique Centrale /CERAD), e-mail: ftpp.cameroun@camnet.cm. (The full version, in French, is available at http://www.wrm.org.uy/countries/Cameroon/Bigombe.html)

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- Tanzania: Joint and Community-Based Forest Management in the Uluguru Mountains

Recent changes in the Forest Policy of Tanzania (1998) and the forthcoming new Forest Act which further operationalises that Policy, have paved the way for several changes in the way that forest conservation might be achieved in Tanzania, including guidelines on the development of Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM) and Joint Forest Management (JFM). These changes also mean alterations in the potential roles of the Forestry Department, the local communities and various conservation NGOs.

The Uluguru Mountains cover a huge area of rugged terrain rising to over 2500 m a.s.l. located within parts of 6 Political Divisions. There are four government forestry staff with responsibility for 13 Forest Reserves on the Ulugurus, containing over 200 sq km of forest. The tops of the large mountain peaks are found in two large Catchment Forest Reserves (Uluguru North and South) managed by the Catchment Forestry Project under the central government Forestry and Beekeeping Division. These two reserves were the most important source of water in the country as they supplied water to Dar es Salaam and also held globally important biodiversity values. There are also Catchment Forest Reserves on the lower slopes of these mountains, and a few smaller forest reserves owned by the local authority and managed by the District Forest Officer through the District Council.

The project chose a focal area in Mkuyuni Division that contained part of the Uluguru North Catchment Forest Reserve, the largest (former) area of General Land Forest and some Local Authority Reserves. As these forest areas are (or were) contiguous with the forests of the Uluguru North Catchment Forest reserve they are hence ecologically similar and surrounded by people practising similar lifestyles, and it was believed that they could provide a good test area for involving local people in forest management.

As part of the project, some activities were carried out in the General Lands (CBFM) and Local Authority Reserves (JFM) in the focal area:

- a workshop on JFM involving all village leaders to create awareness amongst these leaders on environmental conservation and issues pertaining to the new vision for forest management contained in the 1998 forest policy.

- exchange visits to other parts of Tanzania where there are working examples of these management systems.

- the use of aerial photographs and field surveys enabled the forest cover to be mapped in the project area to identify the remaining forest.

- village meetings in the project area to inform participants on the environmental importance of the Uluguru Mountains, and the new changes in Forest Policy which would allow them more control over forested land in their village lands (through Village Forest Reserves - CBFM), and also allowed them opportunities for discussing with the government on user rights for Forest Reserves (JFM agreements).

- the promotion of local management authorities development.

The work on CBFM and JFM in Mkuyuni Division of the Uluguru Mountains is still at an early stage. Presently most effort is being put into getting the remaining Kitumbaku forest reserve declared as Village Forest Reserves for management by six different villages. It will be a major achievement to stop the last of the forests on the Kitumbaku/Kitundu Hills being converted into banana plantations, and to also safeguard the drinking water supplies for the six surrounding villages. Part of the boundary is already surveyed and all four villages have accepted the need for the reserve to protect their water sources through the creation of a Village Forest Reserve.

The following lessons learnt in the General Forest Lands and Local Authority Forest Reserves on the slopes of the Ulugurus have a direct bearing on the development of future JFM in the Uluguru North and Uluguru South Catchment Forest Reserves, as well as other areas:

- the most important forest areas on the Ulugurus are under the authority of Catchment Forestry who have a mandate to protect the nationally important water catchment functions for Dar es Salaam and Morogoro towns, and the globally important biodiversity values in the forests.

- it has been noted the lack of information available to design and then implement JFM in the Ulugurus. In 10 villages in one Division sufficient data were collected to move CBFM and JFM forwards over a period of three years. However, it is difficult to understand the land ownership patterns sufficiently to ensure that the agreements made with village governments will be respected by Luguru clan groups, or other land ownership and management bodies on the Ulugurus.

- mapping of Ward and Village boundaries, has shown that 50 villages border the two large Catchment Reserves within 19 Wards and 6 Divisions. The villages on the Uluguru Mountain slopes and adjacent lowlands contained a total population of around 400,000 people in 1988, and probably somewhat more than that now. The experience of defining village use zones for 6 villages within a single piece of forest on the General land indicates that defining boundaries for 50 villages within the Uluguru North and South Forest Reserves will take considerable time to negotiate successfully. Methods for marking these boundaries also need to be devised.

- the positive attitude of some local people who would like to have forest areas under their own management, to better protect the forests and especially their water supplies. However, there are also power struggles within each village between elements of village government who would like to allocate forest land for farming, and the newly created forest committees who would like to establish management systems for those forests.

Although the work at the Uluguru Mountains is still at an early stage, all means and efforts have been made since it has been initiated, to make it a success. We hope it will encourage other communities all around the world to practise similar lifestyles.

Extracted from: "Community-Based Forest Management and Joint Forest Management, Some Beginnings in the Ulugurus", Ernest Moshi, Neil Burgess, Eliakim Enos, Joseph Mchau, John Mejissa, Shakim Mhagama and Lameck Noah, sent by Nike Doggart - Tanzania Forest Conservation Group, e-mail: tfcg@twiga.com