Africa

Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Cameroon
by Wilfred J. Awung
Centre for Environmental and Rural Transformation Limbe

Background

Given the increasing rate of timber exploitation in the developing countries and the consequent deforestation and forest degradation, there has been calls to protect the forest in developing countries. These calls have been made at different forums. Concrete proposal for the realisation of these calls was made at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (CSD), that held April 11 - 28, 1998.

The conference gave birth to the opportunity for a mandate to start negotiations for a legally binding forest convention, which was supported by the European Union that had previously opposed such moves. During the discussion, governments succeeded in reaching some consensus on a number of issues, most important of which was to establishment an Inter Governmental Panel on Forest, which would at least ensure a coordinated continuation of the international dialogue on forests. The panel was established for two years and was expected to submit its final conclusions, recommendations and proposals for action to the CSD fifth session in 1997. During this conference it was made clear that issues relating to forestry create a lot of tension because of the diversity of interests both in developing and developed countries. These differences reflect various factors involved in timber production and consumption, international timber trade and the valuation of forest for purposes of protecting soils, watersheds and biological diversity.

Introduction

In recent times, there has been increasing concern about the rapid rate of deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries caused by the rapid rate of lose of about 17 - 20 million hectares of forest annually (Flazzell and Magrath, 1992). This concern is caused by the invaluable services that forest provide to its host country. Forest serve as habitat for heterogeneous animal species. It controls the climate and provide hydrological services such as regulation of stream flow and maintaining of rainfall of the area. Forest control erosion in the area where it is located and provides many timber and non timber product that are indispensable to man’s livelihood.

While some of the benefits are quantifiable, others are not. The benefits of forest are enjoyed by people who live outside where the forest is located. Several reasons have been advanced for the increasing rate of deforestation and forest degradation. These causes are usually internal and external. The internal causes include population pressure, poverty, slash and burn system of agriculture, unsustainable logging practices, increasing demand for fuelwood, poorly defined property rights and inappropriate government policies. External causes include the fall in the price of traditional exports such as cocoa, coffee and rubber. These causes are usually inter related and complex, as such it is better to treat them in a holistic manner. For example it is the rapid rate of urbanisation, that has caused the population pressure leading to increasing demand for fuelwood.

Cameroon’s forest resources are estimated at about 22 million hectares of which 14 million are tropical rain forest located in the southern part of the country and the remaining 8 million located in the central and northern Savannah areas (Besong and Ngwasiri, 1995). The forest contains an estimated 1.5 billion M³ of timber (Besong, 1992). Prior to the oil boom era, forest had played an insignificant role in the country’s economy. However, with the decline of the role of oil in the country’s economy and the need to augment shortfall in state finances the government had to turn to forest, by increasing the exportation of timber. Thus forest exploitation increased and it is estimated that about 200,000 hectares of forest are lost annually. Annual timber production is estimated at 2 million M³ and exports are in the order of magnitude of 1 million M³ per annum. Also, because of the high rate of forest exploitation, over 40 species of wildlife such as the black rhinoceros, gorrillas and elephants are threatened with extinction (Besong and Ngwasiri, 1995).

Despite the importance of forest products in Cameroon’s economic revival and the increasing rate of deforestation and forest degradation, little attempt has been made to analyse the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in the country. This study is an attempt to fill this gap with emphasis on the Mount Cameroon Forest region.

The Mount Cameroon Forest Region

The Mount Cameroon Project is located in the humid tropical forest of Cameroon at the foot of Mount Cameroon. Mount Cameroon is an active volcano. Because of its rich volcanic soil and humid climate, the region is quite diverse providing habitat to a rich collection of plants and animals. Known species of trees include cyathea Cameroon, Trilopacerim spp, kola laterite, Hymenostegia spp. Schefflera abyssinia. Trees of economic importance include Prunus africana, Mahogany, Entandrophragma angolesse, coelocaryson preussii, kigelia africana. In terms of animal species, Mount Cameroon region host Monkeys, Elephants, Porcupines, Antellopes and Dear.

The population of the area is estimated at about 100,000 people spread over more than 60 settlements (Brocklesby and Ambrose - Oji, 1997). The largest town in the area is Limbe with a population of about 50,000 and is the main commercial center in the area. Buea, the administrative capital of the South West Province is situated at the foot of Mount Cameroon. Both towns are well connected by roads to Douala, the main commercial centre of the country.

The indigenous people of the area are the Bakwerians. There are two distinct settlement pattern in the area. Some people live in the upper villages at the foot of Mount Cameroon, while others live in the west coast close to the Cameroon Development Corporation (CDC) plantations. Non indigenous people include immigrants from the North West and West Province and Nigeria, who have come to the region to profit from its rich economic opportunities.

The major economic activity of the people of the region is farming. The CDC is the major agro industrial business in the region, producing palm, rubber, banana on 43,000 hectares of land and is the second largest employer of labour in Cameroon, after the government. Peasant agricultural production takes place on small farms about 2 hectares in size. Shifting cultivation is the main mode of farming and the farmers intercrop cocoyams, maize, plantains, yams and vegetables. Women provide most of the labour for agricultural production and marketing. Children are involved in fuel wood gathering while men diversify into other activities such as hunting, tapping and logging.

In the Mount Cameroon area land is communal. Farmers have access to family land; and women can cultivate land that belong to her family. In this area shifting cultivation in the dominant method of farming. Its labour requirement is low and is a natural method of restoring the fertility of an area. Because shifting cultivation involves the opening up of new plots for agricultural activities and the exploration of prenus Africana for its medicinal value, Ricenodendron heudelottis and Gnetum africanum by residents of the area; this leads to deforestation and degradation. Since the forest in this area is secondary forest, there are no logging companies in the area. Logging is therefore done to provide raw material for carpentry industries in the area and food. This logging is done by farmers using engine saws. Since it is difficult to own new engine saws, most of the engine saws in this area are old and insufficient. As such it leads to much timber loss.

Of the different tree species found in the Mount Cameroon region, Prunus Africana is the most valuable because of its medicinal value. Locally, it is used for the treatment of chest pain, malaria and even madness. Internationally, interest in the tree is centred around its back, which contains active biochemicals used for the treatment of prostate gland disorders. Given that more and more men are being treated by this drug, the demand for its back is far greater than the sustainable supply. Prunus has become so important that many people in Mount Cameroon region and even beyond are involved in its exploitation or marketing. Prunus Africa has been exploited in the Mount Cameroon area by Plantecam, a French owned pharmaceutical industry. While a kilogram of Prunus sells for 1,200 FCFA in the international market, what the rural dwellers actually get from marketing Prunus Africana is 250 FCFA. Since the amount of money got can only be substantial with an increase in the quantity of Prunus, most people are forced to harvest it unsustainably. In this area, many of the trees are dying due to poor harvesting methods. Mostly, young trees are now found in the area (Prunus africana, 1997).

Underlying Causes of Deforestation in Mount Cameroon Area

As already mentioned, there are both internal and external causes of deforestation. Population growth is one of the most significant causes of deforestation and forest degradation. In Cameroon in general, rural urban migration has been increasing. Population growth of about 3 per cent per annum has kept pace with food production. In order to avoid food shortage there has been an expansion in the area cultivated. This is done through slash and burn system of farming. This involves clearing a plot, planting crops such as maize, cocoyams, cassava and vegetables for a numbers of years. When the productivity of the soil declines, the plot is left fallow. After several years the farmers return to the plot. In some places the plot is left fallow for about 13 years. In this area the number of shifting cultivation available per household has been calculated at around 100 (Brocklesby and Ambrose - Oji, 1997). Because it labour demands are humble, efficiency in resource use, shifting cultivation is considered an efficient method of farming.

Poorly defined property rights leads to deforestation. Most of the logging takes place on communal land administered on behalf of the community by the state. The local communities have usufruct (right to produce on the land) but the resources on the land such as trees, belong to the state and as such the local population have no incentive to manage the land properly. Thus logging operations come into conflict with rural community when trees of economic and social value to them providing fruits, food, oils, medicinal material and cash are felled or damaged in logging operation (Garthan, 1992).

Poverty exacerbates and intensifies pressure on natural resources (Adeleke, 1998). Poverty in Cameroon has been increasing. According to the World Bank (1991) by 1985 long before adjustment measures hit many incomes, 40 per cent of rural peoples and 15 per cent in urban areas were living in absolute poverty (Derrick, 1992). Population pressure and poverty, together, eliminate many of the options available to manager resources in a sustainable way (Adeleke, 1992). Most of the farmers who cut trees or burn forest do it to meet their pressing needs. Poverty makes it difficult for people to invest in ventures to develop or improve land resources.

Most of those involved in deforestation do not have a thorough working knowledge of the area of their operation. Maps of the area of their operation, showing the topography and details of species composition and timber volume essential for their operation of export or domestic oriented commercial sawmill operations are lacking. Also, contour maps essential for planning, road construction and bridge alignment are not available. As such logging takes place in some concessions that have inadequate species to supply nearby saw mills. This have given rise to the "gré-à-gré" operation which means Cameroonians nationals logging forest near to them using poor equipment, leading to uncontrolled forest degradation. These national licensees are under no obligation to have a sawmill or wood controls and the possibilities of uncontrolled forest degradation are much higher (Gatland, 1992).

Developmental projects such as road construction, and the building of dams usually lead to deforestation. In the Mount Cameroon Project area, the Cameroonian government has been involved in rural road constructions. Roads have been constructed to serve local communities. This roads open forest areas to logging and agricultural activities. New roads will either favour forest clearing for commercial crops, or stimulate the spread of shifting cultivation.

Unsustainable logging practices also promotes deforestation and forest degradation. Present logging practices are very destructive since extracting one cubic metre implies destroying more than two cubic metres, resulting in a significant change of the initial ecosystem diversity e.g harvested volumes in Cameroon may be as low as 5 - 6 cu³ /ha out of a potential volume of 35m³ /ha. Also, there is much wastage of wood at the logging sites in the forest and at the sawmill. Wastage of wood has been estimated at 25 per cent of raw logs. This wastage is because most of the logging takes place in remote sites. In some cases some of the waste is burnt by the sawmill (Gartland, 1992).

Lack of information and non involvement of the local people in forest areas in forest policy formulation is a contributory cause of deforestation. In most cases development initiatives are designed and implemented from the top without any consideration of the way of live of the local people. Most of the government are concerned with the exploitation of the resources of the area to augment their meagre resources without any benefits trickling down to the people. In most cases, the loggers leave behind only bad roads and waste land unfit for agriculture activities.

In addition to the foregoing factors, external causes also contribute to deforestation and forest degradation. Prior to 1986, the Cameroon economy grew at 8 per cent per annum and she achieved a per capita income of just under $800 and graduated from a low to a middle income country. This growth was fuelled by oil, cocoa, coffee, timber and rubber export. However, in 1986, as a result of the economic crisis that saw the country’s term of trade fall by 30% from 1986 to 1989 led to a contraction in the country’s finances. In order to stop the economic crisis and restore the economy on a growth path, the government implemented a structural adjustment programme beginning in 1989. Part of the programme relied on the promotion of non traditional exports which in the Cameroonian case include timber. Also, there was a 60% slash in salary and the devaluation of CFA franc so as to restore the competitiveness of the Cameroonian economy. This led to a reduction in real income and so for Cameroonians to adjust to the new realities there was bound to be expenditure reduction and expenditure switching effects. According to Ndoye (1998) the devaluation of CFA franc has increased the importance of Non Timber Forest Products. For example, the prices of beer and whisky increased after devaluation, and this brought an increase in the consumption of palm wine which is a substitute for these products in both urban and rural areas. The devaluation increased the price of pharmaceutical products which encourages rural and urban consumers to substitute medicinal plants for pharmaceutical products (Ndoye 1998).

2. Description of Underlying Causes

Several factors have been identified as the causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Cameroon. In a recent study Ndoye (1998) analysed those causes during different periods in Cameroon, namely, the pre-oil boom era, the oil boom era and the economic crisis era. He maintains that the factors responsible for deforestation and forest degradation have not been linear over the years. According to him, factors such as population growth, urbanization may affect deforestation but they are not the significant cause of deforestation and forest degradation. The decline in the terms of trade for Cameroon’s major export commodities and the macroeconomics policies implemented in Cameroon such as export promotion and the devaluation of the CFA Franc in January 1994 significantly increased deforestation and forest degradation. These policies influence forest cover through agriculture, fuelwood consumption and timber extraction (Ndoye, 1998).

Actors Responsible for Underlying Causes

There are four actors responsible for the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Cameroon. These are the rural dwellers, the private loggers, external demand and the government. The forest provide food, and employment for the loggers and rural dwellers, the forest is an important source of revenues for the government, since the forest generates fiscal revenues and foreign exchange. Also, there are external actors such as Pharmaceutical Firms in Europe who deman Cameroon’s Forest Products such as Prunus Africana.

Objectives, Motivations and Incentives for all Actors

The objective of the various actors is to improve their financial and economic benefits. The financial benefits are those that accrue to the individual actors such as the rural dwellers and logging companies while the economic benefits are those accruing to the state from taxation of logging companies and foreign exchange earnings.

In Cameroon there are few incentive for the rural dwellers to manage the forest in the area in which they live in a sustainable manner. This is because they have no secured rights to the forest products, and as such they are unwilling to cooperate with government or otherwise take adequate care for these forest in the absence of incentives to do so. The logging companies who are the most visible actors in the deforestation process do not develop the areas in which they exploit timber. In most places these logging companies have made the roads impassable especially during the rainy season. This compounded by the lack of adequate financial resources to implement government forestry laws. They are very few personnel to control logging process and where they are available, they do not have the necessary facilities with which to carry out their duties. In a nutshell incentive for sustainable forest management is not there.

Strategies Applied by Different Actors to Achieve their Goals

The three actors in the deforestation and forest degradation process achieve their goal differently. The Cameroonian government achieves its goal through taxing the logging companies and setting guidelines for timber exploration. The present forestry taxation includes various taxes that would augment the states meagre resources. According to Ndoye (1998) government has imposed a 15 per cent export tax on medicinal plant like prunus africanum bark which is demanded by pharmaceutical companies in Europe to cure postrate cancer. He maintains that government has increased taxes on timber substantially since devaluation. From 1992/93 to 1993/94 government fiscal revenues on timber increased from 7.7 billion to 18.25 billion CFA francs.

Private logging companies are permitted to operate in a given area after paying a fee. These fees are refundable after the license has expired, provided that the licence has managed his concession in accordance with the laid down rule. Revenues from taxation and forestry development fees are meant to finance measures for the protection and regeneration of the logged - over forest (Cameroon and Tropenbos, 1991). It is doubtful if this regeneration exercise is going on.

The private logging companies achieve their objective by operating in concession of about 100,000 to 200,000 hectares. The concession is then divided into working coupes or "chantiers" which are 2,500 hectares in area. The licensee has to nominate the coupes in advance for the coming year. Coupes may remain open for three years, although they are renewable annually, and a fourth year is even allowed (Gartland, 1992). The government requires that 60% of the timber be processed locally.

As for the rural dwellers, they use the land opened up by private logging companies for their farming. They have usufruct rights on this piece of land. When the productivity of this land declines, new ones are sought leading to the clearing of the vegetation and consequently causing deforestation and forest degradation.

Relationship Between Different Actors

The relationship between the different actors is not usually cordial. The government usually threatens the logging companies with sanctions if they fail to pay their taxes or if they log in unsustainable manner. That is why the logging companies pay caution fees. Also, a recent announcement from the government stipulates that logging companies should process timber to about 60% before export. The rural dwellers also have poor relationship with the logging companies because they leave no tangible benefit in the area of their concession. In the Mount Cameroon area, the middlemen exploit the rural dwellers by paying them less that a 200% of the value of their product on the world market. As already mentioned, while a ton of Prunus Africa is worth $1200 FCFA, locally it is 250 FCFA.

Possible Solutions

Several reasons have been given as the causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Cameroon. Given the complexities of the causes it means that solution to the problems would not be easy. The first suggestion in attempting to check deforestation is to have a national forest policy. This policy should be translated in practical reality by having clear and unambiguous objectives to be achieved within a definite time limit. The goals of the national forest policy will be to conserve the forest resources of Cameroon. This means that the policy will have legal framework binding the logging companies or individuals and the rural dwellers. Also the forest department should be provided with adequate resources both financial and material to control and sanction loggers who misuse forest resources. This would mean production of adequate mapping of forest concessions. These maps would show the tree species, the landscape, the access roads and the size of the forest and the soil characteristic. Also, there should be proper incentive for the rural dwellers to manage forest resources in a sustainable manner. This would mean the redefinition of propriety rights that give the rural dwellers the usufruct rights on certain resources on the land: Also, certain incentives should be put in place to encourage people to use the forest resources in a sustainable manner. Small and medium size indigenous companies could be encourage with tax exemptions to take part in forest exploitation.

The various actors that would implement such actions include donors, governments, NGO’s and the private sectors. Donors could provide the necessary financial resources to complement the National Institution in drawing up forestry policy and training human resources. National government could set up an enabling environment for sustainable forest management by formulation forestry policy that meets the needs and aspirations of the local population. NGO’s have closer contacts with the local population and could serve as the missing link in mobilizing the local population in taking part in sustainable forest management.

Specifically, in the Mount Cameroon region, rural dwellers in Bokwaongo, and Mapanja have organised themselves into harvesting institution and trying to eliminate exploitative middlemen so as to attract higher prices for their products. The rural dwellers in this area have started cultivating Prunus Africa on private farms. Some have developed nurseries mostly from collected seedlings from the wild, which they either sell to farmers from other areas or plant in their private or collectively owned farms. The Mount Cameroon Project is raising seedlings that are made available to village communities and other interest groups at a token price. These measures if properly implemented would check the current unsustainable exploitation of Prunus Africana.

Conclusion

This study has attempted to analyse the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Cameroon. It maintains that while factors like population pressure, slash and burn system of farming, lack of well defined property right can lead to deforestation and forest degradation, the main cause of the rapid rate of deforestation today is the macro economic policies of the government. This is particularly true in the Mount Cameroon region where, in order to survive as a result of the economic crisis, most rural dwellers in communities such as Bokwaongo, Bova and Mapanja have increased the rate of forest exploitation. Efforts to control this exploitation through community involvement in harvesting and seedlings regeneration are now been implemented through the assistance of the Mount Cameroon Project.

References

1) Adeleke Wale (1998) "Underlying Causes of Deforestation in Africa" Paper presented at the First African conference on Indigenous and Forest Dependent Peoples, Traditional Knowledge and Biodiversity.

2) Besong Bawak Joseph and Clement N. Ngwasiri (1995) ‘The 1994 Forestry Law and National Natural Resources Management in Cameroon" A PVO - NGO/NRMS Cameroon Publication.

3) Besong Bawak Joseph (1992) "New Directions in National Forestry Policies - Cameroon" Conservation of West and Central African Rainforest World Bank Washington, D.C.

4) Brocklesby and Ambrose - Oji (1997) "Neither the forest nor the Farms.... Livelihood in the Forest Zone: The role of shifting Agirculture on Mount Cameroon" Rural Development Forestry Network Paper, 2/d Summer 1997.

5) Brown David and Kathrin Schreckenberg (1998) Shifting cultivation as agents of deforestation: Assessing the evidence "Natural Resource Perspectives Volume 29, April 1998.

6) Gartland Stephen (1992) "Practical constraints on sustainable logging in Cameroon" in Kelvin Clearer, Mohan Munasinghe, Mary Dyson, Nicolas Egli, Axel Peuker, Francoise Wencélius (eds) Conservation of West and Central African Rainforest" World Ban, Washington, D.C.

7) Prunus Africa (1997) Mount Cameroon Project Leaflet, Buea.

8) Ndoye Ouseynou (1998) "The Impact of Macro Economic and Agricultural Policies on Forest conditions in Cameoron" Unpublished paper International Centre for Forest Research, Yaounde, Cameroon.

9) Ndoye Ouseynou (1997/98). The Markets of Non-Timber Forest Products in the Humid Zone of Cameroon" Rural Development Forestry Network Network Paper

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