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Underlying Causes of
Deforestation and Forest Degradation
Europe Romanian woods 1. Brief decription of the Romanian forest state Forestry stock characteristics: The present-day forests structure of Romania is tightly conditioned of the many forests types as: using, property, relief, soil, weather, vegetation, fauna, etc.. The forestry stock has 6342.000 ha, which from:
Except the forestry stock, there are 319.000 ha of forestry vegetation, that the forest surface represents 27% of the land territory, that is 10 place in Europe. Their number is clearly smaller than a normal one (30-40%) for the all temperate climate European country. The forestry stock repartition in accordance with the property nature looks like that:
Forestry stock distribution territory, includes 42 Forest Offices whose surface is about 6,9% (DS Suceava) and 0,25 % (DS Silvodelta) from the total of Forestry Stock. Forestry stock distribution on the large heights zones proves that it is not uniform, as follows:
The field zone presents the biggest deficit, where it should be 15-20% wood-cladding and 40-45% in the hilly zone in according with our country situation. In the field zone the most deforested territories are : Baragan Field (3,5% wood), Oltenieri Field (5,3), West Field (3,2%), Transilvania Field (6,8%), Moldavian Field (4,1%). In the hilly and plateau zone the low percent of wood-cladding are: Moldavian Plateau (12,7%) and Dobrogea plateau (7,1%). This very deficitary situation for fields and plateaus is caused by the woods surfaces decreasing namely from 70% the natural forests existed, to 27% of nowadays forests. For fifty years wood surface of our country has increased very little. In other countries this surface has increased a lot, for example: to 29,677 ha per year in Spain, to 21.419 ha per year in France, etc.. Forest stocks distribution on bioclimatics floors is not uniform, as well:
Total--------------------------------------------------100% Wooden species composition of our forests is formed of: 69,6% (foioase) and 30,4% resin trees The main species of all the forest area (100%) are:
Among the soft (foioase) (5,1%) the native plops occupy 1,0%, the euro-american plops 1,0%, willows 1,0%, alder trees 2,1%. From the main species pine occupies an extremely small area (5%) which is three times smaller than formerly; ages classes (arboretelor) that form Romanian woods presents generally a surplus for the first three classes of age (young ones), and a deficit for the last three, especially for those which can be exploitable or preexploitable. Now, the age balance of the forestry ftock surface looks like that:
If a well-balanced structure has a normal surface of an ages class which is about 17%, that means the last three classes are deficitary The real proportion of the exploitable (arborete) is clearly smaller because these ones include many old (arborete) destined to an absolutely, or specially protection. Their wooden mass is hardly harvested. The exploitable and preexploitable (arborete) spreading evolved from 490.000 ha in 1954 to 500.000 ha now. Territorially, there are a great number of production centers and even (ocoale) where there are hardly several exploitable (arborete) those centers having been waiting for exploitation for 10-20 years. The functional zoning of the woods was officialized in 1954 (HCM 114) improved and adopted successively Now, our forests are to fulfil the follow conditions:
From this table results that our forests are destined to carry out ecological, social and economical functions which are indispensable for human necessity. From 1955 till now the special protection forests area (I group) rapidly increased four time. This is demonstrated through:
Among the special function of protection forests the most numerous forests are those destined to soil and water protection and both of them occupy 2/3 of the protection forests total. As part of them the accumulation lakes protection forests and soils protection ones prevail. The absolute protection forests surface consisted in protected areas are very reduced, about 17% given the 4% it was in 1995. In Romania the protection functions are predominant, namely 50% of the total,. All these create a real an ecological ground, without affecting economical part. Thus, beside the protection and production forests almost 2/3 of special function of protection forests is not included in the common economical circuit. Even into the preserved woods cutting are programmed sometimes. Forest productivity reflected in forestry stations productive power, the present (arboretelor) productivity, production stock and increasing is represented like that:
Actual (arborete) productivity: I class production 4% Comparing the (arborete) productivity with the productive potential of forestry stations results that: Arborete proportion of the first classes occupy79%while the superior productive stations and middle ones occupy 87%, that is 8%of such stations are consisted in inferior productive (arborete). The last two arborete classes (IV_V) is 21% while the inferior productivity stations is 13,4%,. That means the inferior productivity arborete surfaces are 8% bigger than the same productivity stations. Production stock respectively raw wooden volume of the trees on leg is1341millions m3. This volume is at least 25% inferior to the normal production stock of the regular woods. The middle wooden mass volume per ha is 215m3, our country being the fourth among the European countries, after Switzerland (278m3/ha), Austria (234m3/ha), Czech and Slovenia (217m3/ha). The biggest average volume per ha belongs to fir tree (396m3), followed by the spruce fir (278m3), beech (264m3), which draw near the middle potential of those species. Under this potential it is situated the pine (88-63m3/ha), plops (179m3/ha, GORUNUL (172m3/ha), penduculat oak tree (119m3/ha). Annual average increasing of the woods is 4,09m3/yearly/ha whether the first class of age is considered (1-20years) and5,27m3/yearly/ha without this class. The greatest growing up belongs to fir tree (8,2m3/yearly/ha) the spruce fir (7,2m3/yearly/ha), beech (5,4m3/yearly/ha), GORUNUL (4,8m3/yearly/ha) oak tree (4,9m3/yearly/ha). These increasing values are more or less inferior of stational potential in relation with harm level of ARBORETE by biotic and abiotic factors. The forest posibility, namely the annual normal harvestable wooden mass determined through arranging, is 16,1millions m3, which from 12,2millions m3 FOIOASE and 3,9millions m3 resin trees. Annual possibility of principal products (harvestable wooden mass from exploitable ARBORETE) is 10,1 millions m3. Annual possibility of second products (harvestable wooden mass through taking care works of young ARBORETE is 3,885 millions m3, which from 0,438 millions m3 cleanings, 3,387 millions m3 through growing out : By hygiene works, almost 2,146 millions m3 are harvested. The present forests possibility will not be the same in the future, being affected by evident oscillations due to excessive economical challenges , it was submitted in the past. Between 1950-1989 about 143millions m3principal wooden products over the forests possibility were extracted officially and in addition with this much wooden mass was extracted unofficially . the trees from the hardy of access zones were damaged (wind, snows, fire), drooped trees by pollute and drought. In the far future (15-40years) the possibility of the woods will start to grow up according as middle age ARBORETE becomes exploitable. FITOSANITAR state of woods from Romania in 1996. The Romanian forests both FOIOASE and resin trees are affected by biotic and abiotic factors every year. That’s why forestall and fighting measures are needed. A fitosanitar statistic on different periods shows that about 20-30 % of forestry stock surface is affected by biotic and abiotic harmful factors. These kind of criptogamic agents exists in every country where forestry vegetation is. After forestry Researching and Arranging Institute studies of its researchers results the most dangerous biotic harmful factors are consisted of DEFOLIATOARE insects and bark beatles. In the FOIOASE forests and CVRCINEE, plop and willow ones especially, every year the harmful insects mass grows bigger and bigger. The most frequent and dangerous species are:Lymantria dispar, Totrix viridana, Geometriadae (Operophtera brumata, Erannis defoliaria), Malacosoma neutria, Euproctis chrysorrhoea, Stilpnotia salicis, Drymonia ruficornis. Those defoliants have periodically (4-5 years) a massive development, affecting areas between 100,000-500,000 ha/year, and in some cases like 1987-1988 the infested areas exceeded even 700,000-800,000 ha. In 1996, on the basis of the prognoses made in the deciduous forests, resulted an area infested with defoliants, which summed 673,156 ha. From this area, in accordance with the operative instructions, were included in the pest control zone forest in which the prognoses shown strong and very strong infestation, totaling 55,252 ha. The rest of infested areas (with very low, low and medium infestation) were included in the monitoring zone. Referring to the location of the hotbed for the development of the deciduous forests defoliants, it comes out that the strongest gradations appears in the south of the country, in Oltenia and Muntenia Plain, in the piedmont area, and also in the poplar and willow forest from Danube Delta and Danube Floodplain. In addition to this, there is a phenomenon of decline and massive drying of the trees released., the most affected are the species from plain and piedmont areas. The principal cause which bring about this phenomenon are constituted by the prolonged dryness of the last 10-15 years, and the increasing of the atmospheric pollution with industrial pollutants and chemical pollution of the soil. For the protection of the deciduous forests and for the rescue of the ones affected by drying phenomenon, is necessary to continue the pest control works, granting priority to the biological and integrated pest control. In the coniferous forests, unlike the deciduous ones, exists a pronounced ecological stability, strong and very strong pest infested area being smaller, and the gradations appearing in much larger intervals (in the defoliants case). The prognoses works performed by modern methods, including pheromones method, reveals in the coniferous arboretum two principal groups of pests with different biology:
Referring to the 1996 phytosanitary status, the prognoses and the monitoring works by pheromones, shown that the defoliant Lymantria monacha is present in the majority of the coniferous and mixes (coniferous and beech) forests. By applying of the national system of pheromons traps, with Romanian pheromone Atralymon, composed by 25,000 traps, installed in stationary points, was established that this defoliant represent the main danger for the coniferous forests. The desity calculation shown that actually Lymantria monacha are present on an area which overpass 700,00 ha, in latent phase, with infestation under the level of economical importance damage. Taking into account the danger represented by this defoliant for the coniferous forest, especially for those of spruce, and the fact that a total defoliation to the coniferous trees have as a result the death, the prognoses and monitoring of this pest in all coniferous forests in Romania is imposing, and also the increase of the density of the pheromone traps in the endangered areas, from one trap/50 ha to one trap/20 ha. The second important group of pest in coniferous arboretum are the bark beetles, their presence being signaled in 1996 in the majority of the spruce, fir tree and pine forests. For the tracing and control of the bark beetles in the coniferous forests, in the year 1996, about 20,000 pheromone traps with Romanian pheromone Atratyp, were used, capturing between 1,000-3,000 adults of Ips typographus per trap. In addition of the pheromone traps, for the decreasing of the scolitids populations, 40,000-50,000 trap trees were used, located especially in the areas with strong infestation. Through these measures, the density of the bark beetles were diminished with 30-50%/year, the attack of this pest being under the level of economical importance damage. An important phytosanitary problem, is constituted by the natural calamities produced in 1995 by wind and snow on large areas of the Forest Directorate of Harghita, Covasna and Tg.-Mures. In 1996 in the affected areas in which did not succeed the exploitation of the entire felt wood, a strong infestation with bark beetles, especially Ips typographus, was indentified. In these areas still exist the danger of a strong increase of bark beetles, endangering the surroundings. 1.2. Information concerning the exploitation and industrialization of the wood The exploitation of the wood for economy (about 10-11.5 cubic meters/year)is realized as following: 52-54% through 29 trade companies with state owned capital, constituted by the abolition in 1994 of the three state companies which activated in the domain of exploitation and primary industrialization of the wood; 38-40% through 400 private agencies; 7% through National Regie of the Forests. The quantity of wood designated to supply the population in the rural area represents about 4 millions cubic meters/year. The length of the forest roads is 32,9 thousands km. The density of the roads which goes through forests, including the public ones, is only 6,2 km/ha. The industrial production, including that for exploitation and primary processing of the wood, is realized through 163 trade companies (80% with mixed capital and 20% with private) proceed from the former state units, and also through 12,000 private units appeared in the last 4-5 years. The production of the last ones represent approximately 20% from the total. Per ensemble in comparation with 1990, in 1996 the production of the principal wood products represented: 66% timber, 51% aesthetic verneers, 75% plywoods, 44% PAL, 44% PFL, 40% doors and windows, 52% cellulose and semicelulose, 61% paper. 1.3 Sustainability in the management of the forests and in Romanian forestry before 1990. Even the first regulations concerning the management of forest are from XVIII century, in Romania, a real activity of forest management is developing in the second half of the last century. Having initially as basis the principle of permanency and equality of the wood harvests, especially in the last 3-4 decades, to regulations focusing the promotion of a complex management of the forests, based on the efficient valorification and the continuity of their multiple functions. This kind of management, which have an important role in conservation, by the functional zonation and by natural regeneration, answer to the problems for a sustainable management of forests. Unfortunately its practical implementation in forestry faced big difficulties. In the period before 1989, the volume of the exploited wood, was imposed by annual and multiannual plans. Between 1950-1990 the outruns were over 122 millions cubic meters. The cuts were concentrated with preponderance in the accessible zones. In much forests from these areas were harvested 2 or 3 possibilities of principal products per year, the biggest outruns recorded in the period of SOVROMLEMN functioning, and also between 1966-1975, when the industry of wood processing known an exaggerated development related with the wood resources.. Because of the massive cuttings the natural regeneration was realized only in small proportion. Annually 60,000-80,000 ha were reforested, especially with coniferous species (pines, spruce, douglas) or with deciduous fast growing species (euroamerican poplar, acacia etc.). 2. Actual problems of the forest management. 2.1 Exploited wood and forest regeneration. After 1989, and starting especially with 1992, much attention was paid to the respect of the forests possibilities. If in 1990 the exploited wood from the forestry found outrun with 20% the forest possibilities, in the period 1991-1996 the exploited volume from the public forests, decrease sensitively. Given an average possibility of 14,450 thousands cubic meters, the average of the approved volumes to be exploited yearly was 14,980 thousands cubic meters, and the average of the effectively exploited quantities was 13,450 thousands cubic meters, representing 90% from the approved volume, and 93% from the possibilities of respective forests. The quantity of wood exploited in 1997 from the forests which are public property, is about 14,2 millions mc, the difference than AAC being explained by the difficult access to the some exploitation areas (see paragraph 3.4) The forest regeneration is in accordance with the average of the cuts of main products. The Annual regenerated Surface average during 1991-1996 was about 22,1 thousands of hectares, 43% of this surface made by natural way and the rest of 57% made by reforestation. The big decrease, by almost 51%, of the regenerated surface than the surface regenerated in 1989 (45.3 thousands hectares) is explained by the decreasing of the cut ratio; intensive treatments; the substantially reduction of the regeneration works, etc. The action of improvement and ecological reconstruction of tree zones deteriorated by pollution, dryness, and other factors, is developed, for the moment, at a very slow rate. Related to the new Silvic Code, of 1996, for the future the cost of the regeneration works will be supported from a special fund. 2.2 The relation between the concerns regarding the conservation and the capitalization of the resources The introduction, since 1954, of the functional zonare of the forest has imparted to the Romanian amenajament silvic a conservative character in order to compensate the tendences towards an extensive exploitation of the forestry resources. By the transition, after 1990, towards a normal wood cut regime, are created conditions, in order to assure an adequate equilibrium between the conservation and the value of the resources. Starting from a low level of the AAC and underlining the conservative aspect of the management, in a FAO and World Bank study, made in 1993, concerning the forestry sector of Romania, has estimated that the biological potential of the forests could rich the value of 22 millions mc/year and this potential could increase, towards 26-27 millions mc, during the period 2015-2025, and after that, towards 30 millions mc. It is important to underline also, the fact that, in order to establish the wood crops, this way of calculation isn’t in accordance with the structure of our forests. Sufficiently mentioned, in this respect, that the majority of the trees which could be exploited in the first 20 years, are concentrated in forestry zones where the access to these zones is very difficult. The problem of the Protected Areas it is still insufficiently resolved. In the present, in the forestry framework, exists 14 National Parks with a surface of over 400 thousands hectares, over 50 forestry reservations, as well as many protected areas with a mixed character. Only for two National Parks (Retezat and Bucegi) and for an area from Neamt, is now elaborating a study concerning the management and the conservation of the Protected Areas, initiated with the GEF support and financed by the World Bank. It is underlined also, that many forests, which are part from the functional categories of maximal intensity (approx. 600 thousands hectares) are excluded from the wood production regulation, in their case the cuts being forbidden or having a strong conservative character. 2.3 The Capitalization of the silvic production during the period of transition towards market economy Territorial units of ROMSILVA value the wood by delivering to several economic agents from the exploitation sector and primary wood processing or by delivery to the rural population. Until 1994 the Ministry of Finance established the wood price. After 1994, the wood valuation has been made by public auction, but the Ministry controlled the prices. Starting November 1997, this control has been stopped. The total value of the production achieved by the National Regie of Forests in 1996, was by 469,2 billions lei (equivalent of 144 millions USD), registering, in comparative prices, important increases than the last years (a 10% increase than 1995). The value achieved by wood, 336,0 billions lei (approx. 103 millions USD) represents 72% of the entire production. The rest of 28% comes from the capitalization of other products. During the period 1990-1996, the value obtained by ROMSILVA for the cubic meter of wood, has varied, increasingly, between 124.000 lei and 243.000lei. It is difficult also, the problem of the existing forestry roads. When those roads have been taking over, from the exploitation sector, in 1994, 70% of them were not properly for the auto traffic. In 1994, at the price of wood (6123 lei), it has been added a clear sum of 1938 lei/year. This year, the sum has been increased at 4480 lei. The total necessary costs for repairing and maintenance of these roads will rich the approx. amount of 61-61 billions lei, an insufficient sum, if we take into consideration the high level of deterioration of these roads. 2.4 Investment - development The Regie’s investment had as source the state budget, available through the Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection, as well as its own development fund. The later was composed of 20 - 30 % from the net profit, the rentability rate and production average. The 30 billion lei allocated in 1996 from the state budget were used as follows: 24 billion for building of forestry roads, 4 billion for land consolidation and 2 billion for ecological restoration. The achievements were: 50 km of roads (compared to a minimum required of 600 km); a length of 14 km of the consolidated torrents margins (compared to a 100 km requirement) and 1340 ha of plantations as ecological restoration measures (compared to 2500 ha requirement). In addition to this, a surface of 1100 ha of degraded land was afforested, with a proposal of 300 ha more in 1997. The development fund of the National Regie of Forests has been of 31 billion lei, divided in 7 billion for the development of the production and silvicultural administration base, 18 billion for equipment purchasing and the rest for building of forestry roads. Its obvious from the above mentioned figures that we can not talk about a real development of the forestry sector. The budgetary sources are continuously decreasing and the economic funds of the Regie don’t allow major increases of the respective funds. The initiatives to attract external financial sources resulted in concrete results. Hence, the FAO/CO - World Bank Forestry Sector Review of 1992/1993, suggested the opportunity for an international program, composed of technical assistance, grants, and loans. The budget of the program was estimated at the level of US $240 million and focused on the following activities: building of forestry roads, afforestation of degraded lands and building of institutional capacity. The negotiations halted, due to the reduced financial potential of the National Regie of Forests and to the concerns related to the reimbursement of credits, as a consequence of the wood price. Presently, there are some bilateral discussions with foreign companies for building of forestry roads, but no clear results were achieved. 2.5 Aspects related to the Ownership regime The partial restitution of some forest lands to the former owners, within 1 ha limit, based on the 1991 Land Law has resulted in perturbation of the past system characterized by a unitary management of forests. Outside the state management by the territorial forestry units, the forests were exposed to major threats which led to clear-cutting, as a consequence of the short-term profits mentality of the new owners. The lack of adequate regulations for the management of private forests, poverty and the lack of awareness of the ecological role of forests, had taken their toll. In January 1998, the effects of the pressures exerted on the 337,000 ha of private forests were translated in 14,000 ha of clear-cut forest, followed by no regeneration measures an approx. 27,000 ha of unselective cutting (reducing by illegal cutting of trees density to 0.1 - 0.3). 2.6 Sustainable management of forests as reflected in forestry regulations Both the Forestry Code and the Strategy are developed to meet the world-wide accepted requirements of sustainable management of forests, such as: (1) the forest coverage, (2) biological diversity conservation, (3) forests’ health and vitality, (4) the productive functions of forests, (5) the protection roles of forests and (6) other economic and social aspects related to the forests.
However, taking into account all the positive aspects mentioned above, the analyzed documents don’t meet completely the present requirements. In 1996, when the Forestry Code was promulgated, the private forests represented only 4 - 5% from the total surface covered by forests. Consequently, the regulations related to the private forests are brief and according to the situation existent at that time. The present measures to amend the Land Law will lead to important changes in the ownership relationships in the forestry sector, including creation of an adequate institutional-administrative system to reflect the respective relationships. Analyzing the Strategy, one can see its combined feature as strategy and program. The Strategy is too detailed to be adopted as a long-term strategic document and doesn’t include enough information on the financial means and resources. 2.7 Conclusions, constraints Romanian forests are characterized by a rich diversity, due to the climate and vegetation conditions, as well as to the relatively large degree of natural regeneration. The health status is pretty good and it is mainly explained through the significant percentage of the mixed forest. Beech, the most spread species, has a remarkable resistance to pests. The ratio between the logging stands and the surface is among the highest in Europe. The forest productivity and the existence of a number of natural and semi-natural ecosystems, especially in inaccessible areas can explain this. During the former regime, the timber exploitation exceeded the normal level and the cuttings had been concentrated in the accessible areas. This led to a decrease of the forests’ potential. Presently the AAC is of 16 cubic meters/year with a tendency of increase in the next 15 - 30 years. Although, after 1989, a positive action has been registered, there are still numerous constraints for the Silviculture development. Among these: an increased pressure, due to the poor economic conditions and weak legal and institutional framework (especially related to private forests); the slow transition of Silviculture towards the market economy, financial blockage with negative implications on some forestry works; reduced accessibility of forests; reduced level of investments. Forestry research declined also as a consequence of the poor institutional and financial capacities, lack of staff, reduced external collaboration, significant technical and technological delay compared with developed countries. 3. Proposals (Solutions) In order to address these constraints and to adapt the whole forest management system to the new circumstances related to the change in the ownership regime. The following three categories of measures are proposed for almost one half of the national forestry fund: general measures on promotion of the sustainable management of forests on large scale; technical and economical measure and measures related to the investment policy in the field. Among the general measures: defining the objectives of the forestry policy; completion of the legal frame; administrative and institutional restructuring; improvement of the Silviculture development strategy; elaboration of a national forestry program; elaboration of a system of criteria and indicators for sustainable development; development of international cooperation. Among the technical measures, one has to consider on one hand the differentiation of management measures according to the implications of changing the ownership for an important part of the forestry fund and on other hand the management of forests in units that take into account the specific ownership. Proposals of investments A major problem of the Silviculture activity consists in the failure of a real development, even the annual cost balances are positive. The major objectives of development were known and were introduced in several programs and strategies. The transition towards a concretisation wasn’t possible because of the absence of the financial and institutional capacities concerning the promotion of the necessary investment. The development fund of the National Regie of Forests has been of 31 billion lei, divided in 7 billion for the development of the production and silvicultural administration base, 18 billion for equipment purchasing and the rest for building of forestry roads. Its obvious from the above mentioned figures that we can not talk about a real development of the forestry sector. The budgetary sources are continuously decreasing and the economic funds of the Regie don’t allow major increases of the respective funds. The initiatives to attract external financial sources resulted in concrete results. Hence, the FAO/CO - World Bank Forestry Sector Review of 1992/1993, suggested the opportunity for an international program, composed of technical assistance, grants, and loans. The budget of the program was estimated at the level of US $240 million and focused on the following activities: building of forestry roads, afforestation of degraded lands and building of institutional capacity. The negotiations halted, due to the reduced financial potential of the National Regie of Forests and to the concerns related to the reimbursement of credits, as a consequence of the wood price. Presently, there are some bilateral discussions with foreign companies for building of forestry roads, but no clear results were achieved. The works for the ecological reconstruction are in accordance with the recommendations raised from the following international documents signed also by Romania:
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